Invasions of Mahmud Ghaznavi :
Until the rise of the west, India was possibly the richest country in the world. Such a country presented an irresistible target for the ravening Mongols and their descendents who settled in present day Afghanistan, Uzbekistan, and Tajikistan, all within comparatively easy reach of north-western India.
The northwest was, at this time, a mish-mash of warring kingdoms, more interested in sending scores with their neighbours than in unifying against the Mongols. It is then unsurprising that Mahmud Ghaznavi’s armies so handily defeated those of the Indian kings.
Born in 971 AD, Mahmud Ghaznavi was the eldest son of Subuktagin, the king of Ghazni (in present day Afghanistan). When Subuktagin attacked King Jaipala of Punjab, Mahmud fought for his father in the battlefield. Though Mahmud was the eldest son of his father, it is said that in his last days, Subuktagin was not happy with Mahmud. So, when Subuktagin died in 997 AD, his younger son Ismail became the king of Ghazni. Ismail reigned only for a little time. Very soon, Mahmud defeated him and became the king.
Mahmud began a series of seventeen raids into northwestern India at the end of the 10th century. Nonetheless, he did not attempt to rule Indian Territory except for Punjab, which was his gateway to India.
His first expedition was directed against the frontier towns in 1000 AD.
His second expedition was against Jaipala, the Hindushahi king of Punjab whom he defeated in the First Battle of Waihind. Jaipala could not survive the shock of humiliation and he burnt himself to death. He was succeeded by his son, Anandpala in 1002 AD.
In his sixth expedition, Mahmud defeated Anandpala in the II Battle of Waihind (1008). Anandpala had organized a confederacy of rulers of Ujjain, Gwalior, Kalinjar, Kannauj, Delhi and Ajmer, but the alliance was defeated.
In his other expeditions, Mahmud plundered Nagarkot, Thaneshwar, Kannauj, Mathura and Somnath.
His sixteenth expedition was the plunder of Somnath temple (dedicated to Shiva) in 1025 AD, situated on the sea coast of Kathiarwar. Ghazni attacked this temple in 1025 AD, and looted it of gems and precious stones. He then massacred the worshippers and had the temple burnt. It was then that the famous Shiva lingam of the temple was entirely destroyed.
After looting the Somnath temple, when Mahmud was going back to Ghazni, the Jats had attacked his army. So, to punish the Jats, he returned and defeated them in 1026.
The objective of Mahmud’s expeditions was to plunder the riches of temples and palaces and was not interested in expanding his empire to India. However, he later annexed Punjab and made it a part of his kingdom, just to have easy access.
He patronized 3 persons :
1. Firdausi (Persian poet, known as Homer of the east) who wrote Shahnama.
2. Alberuni (a brilliant scholar from Central Asia) who wrote Tahqiq-I-Hind.
3. Utbi (court historian), who wrote Kitab-ud-Yamni.
Invasions of Muhammad Ghori:
The real founder of the Muslim Empire in India was Shihab – ud – Din Muhammad Ghori or Muhammad of Ghur. It is true that Muhammad bin Qasim was the first Muslim invader of India, who conquered Sindh in 712AD but he failed to carve out a Muslim empire in India on account of his premature death.
Mahmud also failed to set a Muslim empire in India and the only permanent effect of his invasions was the annexation of Punjab. It was left to Muhammad Ghori to build up a Muslim Empire in India on a secure footing.
He was also a ruler of a small kingdom in Afghanistan. But he was interested in conquering northern India and adding it to his kingdom, and not merely in getting gold and jewellery like Mahmud.
His first invasion was directed against Multan in 1175 AD, which was successful. By 1182, Sindh was also captured. Punjab was captured by 1186 AD.
Prithviraj Chauhan, who was the king of Delhi at that time, received contingents from other Rajput kings and defeated him in the First Battle of Tarain (1191).
But he defeated Prithviraj in the Second Battle of Tarain in 1192. Captured Delhi and Ajmer and thus laid the foundation of Muslim Rule in India. Also defeated Jaichandra (Gahadval Rajput, ruler of Kannauj) at the Battle of Chandweri in 1194 AD.
Ikhtiyar – ud – din Muhammad bin Bakhtiyar Khalji, one of Ghori’s commanders, annexed Bihar and Bengal and destroyed Nalanda and Vikramshila University.
Died in 1206 AD, leaving Qutab – ud – Din Aibak the charge.
Rise of Islam: The founder of Islam was Prophet Muhammad(S.A.W) Peace be upon him. He was born in 570 AD. & left this world in 632 AD. After the death of the prophet in 632 AD., the task of the spread of Islam was taken over by the Omayyid Khalifas. The first four Khalifas were Hazarat Abu Bakar (632-634), Hazarat Umar(634-644), Hazarat Usman(644-656), Hazarat Ali (656-661).
The Ilbari Dynasty or Slave Dynasty of India
Out of all the kings belonging to the so – called Slave Dynasty, only three, viz., Qutab – ud – din Aibak, Iltutmish
and Balban were slaves and even they were manumitted by their masters.
The dynasty is called Ilbari dynasty because all rulers of this dynasty, except Aibak, belonged to the Ilbari tribe of Turks.
Qutab – ud – din Aibak History (1206 – 1210) :
Md. Ghori left his Indian possessions in his hands. He ruled on the death of his master and founded this dynasty.
Lahore and later Delhi were his capitals.
Famous for his generosity and earned the sobriquet of lakh – baksh (giver of Lakhs).
Laid the foundation of Qutab Minar after the name of famous Sufi saint, Khwaja Qutbuddin Bakhtiyar Kaki.
Died of a horse fall at Lahore, while playing Chaugan (polo). The Turks only introduced polo in India.
Built the first mosque in India – Quwwat – ul – Islam (at Delhi) and Adhai Din Ka Jhonpara (at Ajmer).
He was a great patron of learning and patronized writers like Hasan Nizami, who wrote Taj – ul – Massir, and
Fakhr – ud – din, writer of Tarikh – i – Mubarakshahi.
History of Aram Shah (1210) :
When Qutab – ud – din Aibak died all of a sudden at Lahore, the Amirs and Maliks of Lahore put Aram Shah on
the throne. Some texts say that he was the son of Aibak while others deny so.
He was a weak and worthless young man and was rejected by the people of Delhi. Iltutmish, who was the
Governor of Badaun at that time, defeated him and acquired the throne.
Iltumish (1210 – 36) :
Shams – ud – din Iltutmish was the son – in – law of Aibak. He is considered the greatest of the slave kings and
the real consolidator of the Turkish conquest in India.
He suppressea the revolts of ambitious nobles and sent expeditions against the Rajputs in Ranthambor, Jalor,
Gwalior, Aimer, Malwa.
Prevented Chengiz Khan attack by refusing to give refuge to an enemy of Khan, Jalaluddin Mangabarani (a ruler from Iran). Thus, due to his diplomatic skill he prevented Mongol attack.
He got his authority (Sultanate of Delhi) recognized by the Caliph of Baghdad (Khalifa), as a member of world
fraternity of Islamic states.
He formed Turkan – i – Chahalgani or Chalisa (a group of 40 powerful Turkish nobles to suppress nobles).
Divided his empire into IQTAS, an assignment of land in lieu of salary, which he distributed to his officers. Every Iqtadar had to maintain law and order and collect revenue. After deducting his salary and the expenses of the government, he sent the surplus revenue to the Central Government. Iqtadars were transferable.
He introduced the silver tanka and the copper jital – 2 basic coins of the Sultanate.
He patronized Minhaj – ul – Siraj, the author of Tabaqat – i – Nasiri.
He is called the Father of Tomb Building (built Sultan Garhi in Delhi).
As his successor, declared Razia, thus deviating from the normal practice.
History of Ruknuddin Firuz Shah (1236) :
Iltutmish had many sons but as all of them were incompetent, he appointed his daughter Raziya as his successor.
In spite of this, the nobles of the court who considered themselves too proud to bow their heads before a woman put on the throne Ruknuddin Firuz Shah who was the eldest son of Iltutmish. But he was an utterly worthless person.
He took pleasure in riding through the streets of Delhi on an elephant and scattering gold among the people. He left the works of the government in the hands of his ambitious mother, Shah Turkan. She was originally a Turkish handmaid. She had her revenge against all those who had offended her in her youth.
The result of all this was that rebellions occurred on all sides. Finally Ruknuddin and her mother were put to death and throne was given to Raziya.
Raziya Sultana (1236 – 1240) :
She was the first and the last Muslim woman ruler of medieval India. She succeeded her brother in 1236 and
ruled for 31 / 2 Years.
She disregarded purdah, began to adorn male attire and rode out in public on elephant back.
She promoted Jamaluddin Yaqut, an Abyssinian, to the important office of superintendent of the stables. It
provoked the Turkish nobles. There were simultaneous revolts in the various parts of the kingdom. The Governor of Lahore was the first to create trouble but he was defeated.
There was a serious rebellion in Bhatinda. Malik Ikhtiyaruddin Altunia, Governor of Bhatinda, refused to
acknowledge the suzerainty of Raziya. Raziya, accompanied by Yaqut Mared against Altunia. On the way, the
Turkish followers of Altunia murdered Yaqut and imprisoned Raziya. She had to marry Altunia to get out of the
situation.
But she was killed, along with her husband, by Bahram Shah, a son of Iltutmish, on their way back to Delhi.
Raziya was an excellent horsewoman who led the army herself. Her only problem was that she was a lady.
Note : After Razia, the battle of succession continued in which the following rulers ruled insignificantly :
1. Muizuddin Bahram Shah (1240 – 1242).
2. Alauddin Masud Shah (1242 – 1246).
3. NasiruddJn Mehmud (1246 – 1265).
Balban History (1266 – 1286) :
He himself was a member of Chalisa. To guard himself, he got every member of Iltutmish family killed and gave a death blow to the Turkish nobility (Chalisa). He ordered the separation of military department from the finance department (diwan – i – wizarai), and the former was placed under a ministry for military affairs (diwan – i – ariz).
The declared the Sultan as the representative of God on earth. He impressed upon the People that king was the deputy of God (niyabat – i – khudai) and the shadow of God (zil – i – ilahi).
Introduced Sijdah or Paibos practice, in which the people were required to kneel and touch the ground with their head to greet the Sultan. He also instructed to the ulemas to confine themselves to religious affairs and not to engage in political activities. He also started the festival of Nauroz.
In order to win the confidence of the public, he administered justice with extreme impartiality. He employed an efficient spy system.
He was a liberal patron of Persian literature and showed special favour to the poet, Amir Khusro.
He was deeply racist and excluded non – Turks from the administration.
He strengthened the frontiers against Mongols.
But his son, Muhammad’s death was a smashing blow to Balban and the death – knell to his dynasty.
After Balban’s death, Kaiqubad (1287 – 1290) sat on throne but he was an inefficient and fun – loving person.
Khalji Dynasty in India
Jallaluddin Firuz Khalji History (1290 - 1296):
He was the first ruler to put forward the view that since a large majority of people in India are Hindus, the state in India could not be a total Islam state.
The most important event of his reign was the invasion of Devagiri in 1294 by his nephew and son-in-law, Ali
Gurshap or Ala-ud-din Khalji. Devagiri was the capital of the Yadava kingdom in the Deccan and Ala-ud-din
plundered the vast treasury.
Married his daughter to Ulugh Khan, a descendent of Chengiz Khan, to win their goodwill.
Alauddin Khilji (1296-1316):
He assassinated his uncle and proclaimed himself Sultan winning over the nobles and soldiers to his side by a
lavish use of gold (accumulated from Devagiri).
After coming to power, he massacred the old Balbani and Jalali nobles and the Mongols who had settled in Delhi, and some of his own family members.
His first conquest was of the rich kingdom Gujarat, (ruled by the Vaghela king, Rai Kama Dev II). This conquest is notable.for two reasons - first, he married the Raja's wife, Kamla Devi; and secondly, there only he acquired Malik Kafur, a eunuch, who later on rose to become a great military general.
Then he captured Ranthambhor, Chittor and Malwa. Chittor was ruled by a Gahlot king, Ratna Singh whose
queen Padmini committed jauhar when his husband was defeated. Alauddin named Chittor as Khizrabad, after
his son.
After his conquest of north India, he sent Malik Kafur towards South.
Malik defeated Yadavas of Devagiri (king was Ram Chandra Deva), Kakatiya king Pratap Rudra Deva I of
Warangal, Hoysalas of Dwarsamudra (king was Vira Ballala III) and Pandyas of Madurai (king was Maravarman
Kulasekhara). He is said to have reached as far as Rameshwaram where he built a mosque. Thus, the whole of
Deccan was subjugated.
He strengthened the North West Frontier under his trusted commander Ghazi Malik.
He adopted Balban's policy of 'Blood and Iron' in tackling the Mongol menace.
Added an entrance door to Qutab Minar, Alai Darwaza and built his capital at Siri.
Also built Hauz Khas, Mahal Hazaar Satoon and Jamait Khana Mosque in Delhi.
Adopted the title Sikandar-i-Sani.
Administration of Alauddin Khilji :
First Sultan to have permanent army- paid soldiers in cash, imported horses, detailed description of each soldier (Chehra) and each horse (Dagh) was kept (first time).
He took radical preventive measure to prevent rebellion.
a. Confiscation of the religious endowments and free grants of lands.
b. An efficient espionage system was built.
c. Sale of liquor and intoxicants prohibited.
d. Restrictions and strong checks on social gatherings, marriages between the families of nobles etc.
Revenue Reforms :
a. Measured the cultivable land and fixed land revenue accordingly; Biswa was declared to be the standard
unit of measurement.
b. The state demand was half of the produce / Biswa.
c. House tax (ghari) and pasture tax (chari) were imposed.
d. A special post Mustakhraj was created for the purpose of collection of revenue.
Market control :
a. The price was fixed by the state of commodities.
b. Four separate markets were established for various commodities-Central grain market, market for
manufactured goods, market for general items and market for horses, cattle and slaves.
c. The Sultan received daily reports of these from independent sources (spies).
d. Strict punishment for cheating and underweightment.
First Turkish Sultan of Delhi who separated religion from politics. He proclaimed - "Kingship knows no kinship".
Though Alauddin was illiterate, he was a patron of learning and art. There were many great poets in his court.
Both Amir Khusro and Mir Hasan Dehlvi enjoyed his patronage.
Qutbuddin Mubarak Shah History (1316 - 1320):
He was one of the sons of Alauddin who, somehow, escaped the preying eyes of Malik Kafur. After the death of Kafur he became the king.
After seating himself on the throne, he tried to win over the goodwill of the people. He cancelled all harsh
regulations started by his father.
During his reign, many revolts took place across the country. Although he was able to crush them, he wasn't able to run the administration smoothly.
History of Nasiruddin Khusro Shah (1320):
He killed Mubarak Shah and usurped the throne. But like his mentor, he too was an incapable ruler.
He was defeated and killed by Ghazi Malik. With him, the thirty year rule of Khalji dynasty also came to an end.
History of Malik Kafur :
He was an Indian eunuch and slave who became a general in the army of Alauddin Khilji. In 1297, he was
purchased for 1,000 Dinars by Nusrat Khan. That is the reason why Malik Kafur is sometimes called Hazar-
Dinari. It is reported that Alauddin fell in love with his effeminate handsomeness and named him senior
commander in his army after he agreed to convert to Islam.
Perhaps due to the favor of the sultan, Kafur rose quickly in the army; He led the sultan's army against the
Yadava kingdom of Devagiri, the Kakatiya kingdom and eventually into the Pandyan kingdom in far southern
India, winning immense riches for the sultanate.
Kafur's invasion of Pandya was the farthest south that any Muslim invasion would ever reach in India; Kafur's
success in the Deccan made him so powerful that Alauddin became merely a puppet in his hands. This "evil
genius of the Sultan" told Alauddin that his wife and sons were conspiring against him and got them imprisoned.
After the death of Alauddin he placed, Kafur was responsible for the execution of all those princes of royal blood who had any claim to the throne. Thirty six days after the death of Alauddin, Kafur and his associates were killed.
Amir Khusro (1253 - 1325):
Ab'ul Hasan Yamin al-Din Khusro, better known as Amir Khusro Dehlavi, is one of the iconic figures in the cultural history of India. A Sufi mystic and a spiritual disciple of Nizamuddin Auliya of Delhi, Amir Khusro was not only one of India's greatest poets, he is also credited with being the founder of both Hindustani classical music and Qawwali (the devotional music of the Sufis).
He was born of a Turkish father, Saif Ad-din and an Indian mother, in India. He was associated with royal courts of more than seven rulers of Delhi Sultanate. He created the fusion of Indian Arabic and Persian music. He is credited to have invented tabla and sitar and modified veena. He was given the title Tuti-i-Hind (parrot of India).
One of his famous Persian couplet goes like this:
"Agar firdaus bar roo-e zameen ast,
Hameen ast-o hameen ast-o hameen ast."
If there is paradise on face of the earth,
It is this, it is this, it is this (India)
His famous works include Tuhfa-tus-Sighr (his first divan), Wastul-Hayat (his second divan), Ghurratul-Kamaal, Baqia-Naqia, Nihayatul-Kamaal, Qiran-us- Sa'dain, Miftah-ul-Futooh (in praise of the victories of Jalauddin Khalji), Ishqia / Mathnavi Duval Rani-Khizr Khan (a tragic love poem about Gujarat's princess Duval and Alauddin's son Khizr Khan), Mathnaui Noh Sepehr (Khusrau's perceptions of India and its culture), Tughlaq Nama (Book of the Tughlaqs), Khamsa-e-Nizami (five classical romances: Hasht-Bahisht, MatlaulAnwai, Sheerin-Khusrau, Majnun-Laila and Aaina-Sikandari, Ejaaz-e-Khusrovi, Khazain-ut-Futooh, Afzal-ul-Fawaid (utterances of Nizamuddin Auliya), Khaliq-e-Bari, Jawahar-e- Khusrovi.
The Tughlaq Dynasty:
Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq (1320 – 25) :
Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq or Ghazi Malik was the founder of the Tughlaq Dynasty. This dynasty is also known as the dynasty of the Qaraunah Turks as the father of Ghiasuddin Tughlaq was a Qaraunah Turk.
He was the first Sultan of Delhi who took up the title of Ghazi or slayer of the infidels.
He liberalized Alauddin’s administrative policies and took keen interest in the construction of canals and
formulated a famine policy. The judicial and police arrangements were made efficient. The Chehra and Dagh
system introduced by the Alauddin was continued. Efficient postal services were restored.
Built the fortified city of Tughlaqabad and made it his capital.
Dispatched his son, Jauna Khan to re-establish the authority in Warangal (Kakatiyas) and Madurai (Pandyas).
Had troublesome relationship with the sufi saint, Shaikh Nizamuddin Aulia.
Died in 1325, after a fall from a high-raised pavilion. Ibn Batuta, the Moroccon traveller, who was in Delhi at that time, opined that his death was due to sabotage arranged by his son, Jauna Khan.
History of Muhammad Bin Tughlaq (1325 – 1351) :
Real name was Jauna Khan.
Regarded as the most controversial figure in Indian history, because of his five ambitious projects.
1. Increase in the land revenue in the Doab, between Ganga and Yamuna in north India. The measure
proved to be ill – timed, as Doab was passing through famine which was followed by plague.
2. He was committed to maintaining the Sultanate’s expansion into the newly – conquered provinces of
peninsular India. To have better administration of these southern parts of the Empire, Muhammad moved
the capital from Delhi to Devagiri in the Deccan, renaming that city Devagiri as Daulatabad.
Instead of moving just his government offices there, he forcibly moved the entire population of Delhi to the
new capital. The plan failed due to inadequate water supply arrangements in Devagiri; the capital had to
be shifted back again to Delhi after two years.
A vast amount of the population died during the moves due to the inadequate travel arrangements. It was
said that Delhi was a ghost town for years after the move back.
3. He also had the idea of introducing token currency for the first time in India, modelled after the Chinese
example, using copper coins, backed by silver and gold kept in the treasury. However, very few people
exchanged their gold/silver coins for the new copper ones and the tokens were easy to forge, which led to
heavy losses. Later, the Sultan repealed his verdict and all the copper coins were redeemed in silver or
gold from the treasury, making it empty.
4. Muhammad Tughlaq planned an expedition for the conquest of Khurasan and Iraq. But the scheme was
abandoned as conditions in Iraq improved (paid the extra army for one full year).
5. The plan for the conquest of Karajal (Kumaon hills) also met with a disastrous end.
During his last days, the whole of S.India became independent and three major independent states – The Empire of Vijaynagar, The Bahmani kingdom and Sultanate of Madura were founded.
A new department for agriculture Dewan – i – Kohi was setup.
He knew Arabic and Persian languages. He was also an expert in philosophy, astronomy, logic and mathematics. He was also a good calligrapher.
He built the fortress of Adilabad and the city of Jahanpanah.
The famous traveller, Ibn Batuta came to Delhi during 1334. He acted as the Quazi of the capital for 8 years. He has recorded the contemporary Indian scene in his ‘Safarnamah’ (called Rehla).
History of Firoz Shah Tughlaq (1351 – 1388) :
He was Muhammad’s cousin. He was chosen the Sultan by the nobles.
He tried to appease everybody. He cancelled the loans of peasants which had been advanced by his
predecessor. He did not give any harsh punishment and banned the inhuman practices like cutting hands, nose,
etc. Agriculture was developed by the reclamation of wastelands and by providing irrigation facilities. He
constructed four canals for irrigation.
He made iqtadary system hereditary. The principle of heredity was recognised not only in civil
offices, but also in army. Soldiers were given land assignments instead of cash payment.
Imposed some new taxes :
1. Kharaj : a land tax equal to 1/10 of the produce of the land (by Hindus only).
2. Jaziya : a tax by non – muslims (even by brahmins).
3. Zakat : Tax on property (@ 2.5%) (by Muslims only).
4. Khams : 1 / 5th of booty captured in war.
Took steps to translate Hindu religious texts & Sanskrit books on music into Persian.
Built new towns : Hissar, Firozpur, Fatehabad, Firozabad (the present day Firoz Shah Kotla in Delhi) and
Jaunpur.
Set up hospitals, dug a number of canals, dams, mosques.
Repaired Qutab Minar when it was struck by lightening.
Built his capital Firozabad and to beautify it, brought 2 Ashoka Pillars, one from Topara in Ambala & the other
from Meerut.
Was fond of slaves (had around 1,80,000 slaves).
Wrote a book ‘Fatuhat Firozshahi’.
Gained notoriety for temple breaking and Mathura was destroyed during his period.
Barani, the historian was in his court. He wrote two well known works of history: Tarikh – i – Firozshahi and Fatwa– i – Jahandari.
Khwaja Abdul Malik Isami wrote Futuh – us – Sulatin.
He formed Diwan – i – Khairat and built Dar – ul – Shafa or a charitable hospital at Delhi. Also introduced 2 new coins – Adha (50% jital) and bikh (25% jital).
The Later Tughlaqs History :
Firoz Tughlaq was succeeded by his grand son who took up the title of Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq Shah II. He was a
pleasure – loving king who tried to strengthen his position by merely disposing of all possible rivals.
Ghiyasuddin was replaced by Abu Bakr Shah in 1389.
Abu Bakr was replaced by Nasiruddin Muhammad in 1390, who ruled till 1394. His son Alauddin Sikandar Shah ascended the throne briefly in 1394. But he fell sick almost immediately after his accession and died in 1394 only.
The vacant throne now fell to Nasiruddin Mahmud Tughlaq. In his reign, Timur invaded India.
Timur’s Invasion :
He was a great Mongol leader of Central Asia. He became the head of the Chaghtai Turks at the age of 33.
Before reaching India, he had already conquered Mesopotamia and Afghanistan. He reached Delhi in December
1398. At that time, Nasiruddin Mahmud was the ruler.
Timur ordered general massacre in Delhi and robbed people mercilessly.
He is said to have inflicted on India more misery than had ever before been inflicted by any conqueror in a singleinvasion. The Tughlaq Empire could never recover from such a terrible blow and came to an end.
Sayyid Dynasty
Khizr Khan (1414 – 1421) founded the dynasty and claimed to have descended from the prophet of Islam.
He helped Timur in his invasion, so he was given the governorship of Lahore, Multan & Dipalpur.
When Khizr Khan got possession of Delhi, his position was very weak and he didn’t take up the title of king and contended himself with that of Rayat – i – Ala.
The coins were struck and Khutba was read in the name of Timur and after his death in the name of his
successor, Shah Rukh.
Khizr Khan’s 3 successors – Mubarak Shah (1421 – 33), Muhammad Shah (1434 – 43) and Alauddin Alam Shah (1443 – 51) were incapable leaders.
Sayyid dynasty’s 37 Years remained troubled with external invasions, internal chaos, etc.
Provided opportunity to Bahlul Lodhi.
Yahya – bin – Ahmed – bin – Abdullah – Sirhindi wrote Tarikh – i – Mubarakshahi (history from Mahmud to
Muhammad Shah of Sayyid Dynasty).
The Lodhi Dynasty
They were Afghans by race (considered the first Afghan dynasty of India).
They were ruling over Sirhind when Sayyids were in India.
History of Bahlul Lodhi (1451 – 1489):
Conquested Jaunpur by ousting Sharqui dynasty.
Revived Sultanate to quite an extent.
History of Sikandar Lodhi (1489 – 1517):
Real name was Nizam Khan. Noblest of the three Lodhi rulers.
Introduced the Gaz-i-Sikandari (Sikandar’s yard) of 32 digits for measuring cultivated fields.
In 1504, he founded the city of Agra and made it his capital.
Set up an efficient espionage system and introduced the system of auditing of accounts.
Took care of department of Justice and department of agriculture.
Was a poet himself and wrote verses in Persian under the pen-name of Gulrukhi.
Repaired Qutab Minar.
Ibrahim Lodhi (1517 – 1526):
Repressive ruler.
Was defeated and killed by Babur in the I Battle of Panipat in 1526.
With this the Sultanate of Delhi ended.
Administration, Society and Economy Under the Delhi Sultanate :
The country was divided into iqtas which was distributed among the nobles, officers and soldiers for the purpose of administration and revenue collection. Iqtadars could also be transferred. Iqtadars maintained the iqtas, kept a certain sum for the cost of administration and their personal expenses, and sent the rest to the Sultan.
Civil administration was headed by Wazir (Chief Minister) who supervised the collection of revenue, the checking of the accounts and the regulation of expenditure. His office was known as Diwan-i-wizarat.
The next important department was diwan-i-arz headed by ariz-i-mumalik, who was responsible for the
recruitment, payment and inspection of troops.
Diwan-i-Insha headed by dahir-i-mumalik managed the royal correspondence.
Religious matters and endowments were dealt with by the diwan-i-rasalat headed by sadr-us-sadur.
Barid-i-mumalik was the head of the state news agency.
The provinces were divided into shiqs under the control of shiqdars. The next unit was parganas, groups of
hundred villages, headed by chaudhary. The village was the smallest unit of administration.
Lodhi Dynasty Cultural Development (13th – 15th Century)
Art and Architecture India :
The use of arch and the dome is the special feature of the Muslim architecture. As the arch and dome needed
strong cement finer quality of mortar became wide-spread in north India.
For decoration, the Turks used geometrical and floral designs (instead of human and animal figures in Hindu
temples), with verses from Quran. They also used some Hindu motifs like bel motifs, lotus, swastik, etc.
The Tughlaq built sloping walls called battar combining the principles of arch and the lintel and beam.
Music :
New musical modes and instruments like rabab and sarangi were introduced.
Amir Khusro introduced many Persian Arabic ragas. Also invented the sitar.
Painting in India : Paper was introduced by the Arabs in the 15th century and this patronized painting.
Literature India :
Udayaraja wrote Raja Vinoda on Mahmud Begarha.
Merutanga’s Prabandha Chintamani
A no. of Sanskrit works – Rajatarangani, Mahabharata, Koka Shastra – were translated into Persian.
Zai Nakshabi’s TutiNama (a translation of Sanskrit stories into Persian) was very popular.
History of Sufis :
There were 3 chief orders of Sufis in India : The Chishti, The Suharawadi and the Silsilah of Firdausi.
The link between the teacher or pir and his disciple or Murid was a vital part of Sufi system. Every pir nominated a successor or Wali to carry out work. Khanqah was the place where Sufi mystics lived.
1. The Chishti History :
The Chisti order was established by Khwaja Muinuddin Chishti (Ajmer). His two main disciples were Bakhtiyar Kaki and Shaikh Hamiduddin Sufi.
Others were Nizamuddin Auliya, Nasiruddin Chiragh – i – Dehlvi, the historian Barani and the poet Amir Khusro.
It was popular in Delhi and the Doab region.
2. The Suhrawardi Sufi Order :
It was popular in Punjab and Sindh.
Popular saints were Shaikh Shihabuddin Suhrawardi and Hamid – ud – din Nagory.
Saints of this order had big jagirs and had close contact with the state.
3. The Firdausi Order : It was a branch of the Suhrawardi order and its activities were confined to Bihar. It was popularized by Shaikh Sharfuddin Yahya who was a disciple of Khwaja Nizamuddin Firdausi.
4. The Qadiri Order :
It was founded by Shaikh Abdul Qadir Jilani of Baghdad. It was popularized in India by Shah Niamatullah and Makhdum Muhammad Jilani.
Dara Shikoh, the eldest son of Shah Jahan, was a follower of this order.
5. Nakshabandi Sufi Order :
It was founded in India by the followers of Khwaja Pir Muhammad. It was popularized in India by Khwaja Baqi Billah who came to India from Kabul in the last years of the reign of Akbar.
Of all the Sufi orders, it was nearest to orthodoxy and it tried to counteract the liberal policies of Akbar who was considered by them as heretic.
6. Shattari Sufi Order :
Shah Abdullah brought the Shattari order to India during the Lodhi Dynasty. Muhammad Ghhauth of Gwalior was the most important saint of this order.
Tansen was the follower of this order.
Bhakti Movements in India :
Among the Hindus, the Bhakti movement preached religion which was non – ritualistic and open to all without any distinction of caste or creed.
The real development of Bhakti took place in south India between 7th and 12th century. The bhakti saints came usually from lower castes. They disregarded castes, encouraged women to join in the gatherings and taught in the local vernacular language.
Ramanuja (12th century) : Earliest exponent of Bhakti Movement. According to him, the way of Moksha lies through Karma, Gyan and Bhakti. The performance of duty without any selfish motive purifies the mind. He gave the concept of Vishishtadvaita.
Nimbarkara : The next leader of the bhakti movement was Nimbarkara, a younger contemporary of Ramanuja.
He was a worshipper of Krishna and Radha.
Madhavacharya: (1238 – 1317) : He ranks with Ramanuja in the Vedanta system. He said that release from transmigration can be secured only by means of knowledge and devotion. His successor was Jayatirtha.
Ramanand (15th century) : First great Bhakti saint of north India. Worshipper of Lord Ram. He put emphasis on Bhaktiand avoided both Cyan marg and Karma marg. His followers were Ravidas, Kabir, Dhanna, Sena, etc.
1. Namadeva – Tailor.
2. Ravidas – Cobbler (His 30 hymns are in Guru Granth Sahib).
3. Kabir – Weaver.
4. Sena – Barber.
5. Sadhana – Butcher.
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